Understanding the classification of elements into metals, non-metals, and metalloids is fundamental in the study of chemistry within the IB MYP 4-5 Science curriculum. This categorization not only aids in predicting the physical and chemical properties of elements but also enhances the comprehension of the periodic table's structure and trends.

Key Concepts

1. Classification of Elements

Elements on the periodic table are broadly classified into three categories: metals, non-metals, and metalloids. This classification is based on their distinct physical and chemical properties.

2. Metals

Metals constitute the majority of elements on the periodic table. They are typically characterized by their luster, malleability, ductility, and good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals tend to lose electrons during chemical reactions, forming positive ions or cations.

Physical Properties: Shiny appearance, high density, high melting and boiling points.
Chemical Properties: Tend to form basic oxides, react with acids to produce hydrogen gas.
Examples: Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al).

3. Non-Metals

Non-metals are elements that lack the characteristics of metals. They are generally brittle in solid form, lack luster, and are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals tend to gain electrons during chemical reactions, forming negative ions or anions.

Physical Properties: Dull appearance, low density, low melting and boiling points.
Chemical Properties: Tend to form acidic oxides, often react with metals to form salts.
Examples: Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S).

4. Metalloids

Metalloids possess properties intermediate between metals and non-metals, making them semiconductors of electricity. They exhibit a mixture of metallic and non-metallic characteristics, which makes them valuable in various technological applications.

Physical Properties: Shiny like metals but brittle, moderate electrical conductivity.
Chemical Properties: Can exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals depending on the conditions.
Examples: Silicon (Si), Boron (B), Arsenic (As).

5. The Periodic Table and Trends

The periodic table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number, and its structure reveals periodic trends in element properties. Metals are typically found on the left and in the middle of the table, non-metals on the upper right, and metalloids along the zigzag line separating metals and non-metals.

Atomic Radius: Decreases across a period and increases down a group.
Ionization Energy: Increases across a period and decreases down a group.
Electronegativity: Generally increases across a period and decreases down a group.

6. Electron Configuration and Bonding

The classification into metals, non-metals, and metalloids is closely related to each element’s electron configuration. Metals typically have fewer electrons in their outer shell, facilitating the loss of electrons and the formation of metallic bonds. Non-metals usually have more electrons, favoring the gain of electrons and the formation of covalent or ionic bonds. Metalloids can display both types of bonding.

$$ \text{Metal Bonding: } \text{Metal } \rightarrow \text{loss of electrons} \rightarrow \text{Cations} \\ \text{Non-Metal Bonding: } \text{Non-Metal } \rightarrow \text{gain of electrons} \rightarrow \text{Anions} $$

7. Applications of Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids

Each category of elements has distinct applications based on their properties. Metals are essential in construction, electronics, and transportation due to their strength and conductivity. Non-metals are crucial in biological processes and the production of fertilizers and chemicals. Metalloids play a vital role in the semiconductor industry, contributing to the development of electronic devices.

Metals: Iron in construction, Copper in electrical wiring, Aluminum in packaging.
Non-Metals: Carbon in organic chemistry, Nitrogen in fertilizers, Oxygen in respiration.
Metalloids: Silicon in computer chips, Boron in glass manufacturing, Arsenic in pesticides.

8. Reactivity and Chemical Behavior

Metals are generally more reactive with acids and water, forming salts and releasing hydrogen gas. Non-metals react with metals to form ionic compounds or with other non-metals to form covalent compounds. Metalloids exhibit variable reactivity, often acting similarly to either metals or non-metals depending on the reaction conditions.

Metals: Reactivity varies; Alkali metals are highly reactive while transition metals are less so.
Non-Metals: Highly reactive non-metals like fluorine are strong oxidizing agents.
Metalloids: Reactivity can depend on the state and environment, e.g., silicon is relatively inert in many conditions.

9. Oxidation States and Compounds

Metals exhibit multiple oxidation states, which are crucial in forming various compounds. Non-metals typically have negative oxidation states, reflecting their tendency to gain electrons. Metalloids can display both positive and negative oxidation states, contributing to the diversity of their compounds.

Metals: Iron can exhibit +2 and +3 oxidation states.
Non-Metals: Sulfur commonly displays a -2 oxidation state.
Metalloids: Boron can have positive oxidation states in compounds like borates.

10. Trends in Chemical Properties

As one moves across a period from metals to non-metals, the chemical properties change from reducing to oxidizing behavior. The metalloids bridge this transition, exhibiting properties of both. These trends help in predicting the behavior of elements during chemical reactions.

Across a Period: Transition from metallic to non-metallic properties.
Down a Group: Metals become more reactive, non-metals less reactive.

Comparison Table

Aspect	Metals	Non-Metals	Metalloids
Appearance	Shiny, lustrous	Dull, lack luster	Shiny but brittle
Conductivity	Good conductors of heat and electricity	Poor conductors	Semiconductor properties
State at Room Temperature	Mostly solid	Varies (gases, liquids, solids)	Solid
Chemical Reaction	Tend to lose electrons	Tend to gain electrons	Can both lose and gain electrons
Examples	Iron, Copper, Aluminum	Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur	Silicon, Boron, Arsenic

Summary and Key Takeaways

Elements are classified as metals, non-metals, or metalloids based on their distinct properties.
Metals are characterized by their conductivity and malleability, while non-metals are more diverse in their properties.
Metalloids exhibit intermediate properties, making them essential in semiconductor technology.
The periodic table arrangement reveals important trends that aid in predicting element behavior.
Understanding these classifications is crucial for applications in various scientific and industrial fields.

Examiner Tip

Tips

- **Mnemonic for Metalloids:** *"Boron Silently Arsenic Teaches"* – Remember Boron, Silicon, Arsenic, and Tellurium as common metalloids.
- **Periodic Trends:** Visualize the periodic table to see the shift from metals on the left to non-metals on the right, with metalloids along the zigzag line.
- **Practice Electron Configurations:** Regularly write out electron configurations to better understand bonding and reactivity.
- **Use Flashcards:** Create flashcards for properties and examples of metals, non-metals, and metalloids to reinforce your knowledge.
- **Relate to Real-World Applications:** Connect element classifications to their uses in everyday life to enhance memory retention.

Did You Know

1. **Gallium**, a metal, can melt in your hand since its melting point is just above room temperature at about 29.76°C. This unique property makes it useful in high-temperature thermometers and electronics.
2. **Boron**, a metalloid, is essential in the production of borosilicate glass, which is resistant to thermal shock and used in laboratory equipment and kitchenware.
3. **Carbon**, a non-metal, exists in several allotropes, including diamond, which is the hardest known natural material, and graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms with exceptional electrical conductivity.

Common Mistakes

1. **Misclassifying Metalloids:** Students often confuse metalloids with metals or non-metals. Remember, metalloids have properties of both.
  - *Incorrect:* Silicon is a metal.
  - *Correct:* Silicon is a metalloid.
2. **Overlooking Trends:** Failing to recognize periodic trends can lead to incorrect predictions about element behavior.
  - *Incorrect:* Assuming all elements on the left are highly reactive.
  - *Correct:* Reactivity varies; alkali metals are highly reactive, while transition metals are less so.
3. **Electron Configuration Errors:** Incorrectly determining electron configurations can affect the understanding of an element’s bonding behavior.
  - *Incorrect:* Thinking all metals have the same number of valence electrons.
  - *Correct:* Valence electrons vary among metals, influencing their reactivity and bonding.

FAQ

What defines a metalloid?

Metalloids are elements with properties intermediate between metals and non-metals. They exhibit characteristics of both, such as semi-conductivity, making them valuable in electronics.

Why are metals good conductors of electricity?

Metals have free-moving valence electrons, which allow electric charge to flow easily through the material, making them excellent conductors of electricity.

How are non-metals important in biological processes?

Non-metals like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are essential for life. Carbon forms the backbone of organic molecules, nitrogen is vital for amino acids and proteins, and oxygen is crucial for cellular respiration.

Can you give an example of a metalloid in technology?

Silicon is a key metalloid used in the manufacture of semiconductors, which are fundamental components in computer chips and electronic devices.

What is the significance of oxidation states in metals?

Oxidation states indicate the charge an element can have when it loses or gains electrons. Metals often have multiple oxidation states, allowing them to form a variety of compounds with different properties.

How do periodic trends help in predicting element reactivity?

Periodic trends such as atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity change predictably across periods and groups. These trends help chemists predict how elements will react chemically.

1. Electricity and Magnetism

1.1 Magnetic Fields and Electromagnetism

1.1.1 Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet

1.1.2 Field Lines Around Currents and Solenoids

1.1.3 Right-Hand Rule and Magnetic Direction

1.1.4 Strengthening Electromagnets

1.1.5 Uses of Electromagnets in Real Life

1.2 Everyday Applications and Safety

1.2.1 Electric Fuses and Circuit Breakers

1.2.2 Earth Wires and Electrical Grounding

1.2.3 Dangers of Overloading and Short Circuits

1.2.4 Household Wiring and Power Ratings

1.2.5 Electricity Safety Rules and First Aid

1.3 Static and Current Electricity

1.3.1 Understanding Static Charge and Discharge

1.3.2 Charging by Friction, Induction, and Conduction

1.3.3 Electric Field Concepts (Introductory)

1.3.4 Hazards and Uses of Static Electricity

1.3.5 Comparison Between Static and Current Electricity

1.4 Series and Parallel Circuits

1.4.1 Constructing Simple Electrical Circuits

1.4.2 Current and Voltage in Series Circuits

1.4.3 Current and Voltage in Parallel Circuits

1.4.4 Advantages and Applications of Each Type

1.4.5 Measuring Current and Voltage with Ammeters and Voltmeters

1.5 Resistance, Voltage, and Current

1.5.1 Ohm’s Law: V = IR

1.5.2 Factors Affecting Resistance

1.5.3 Graphing V-I Characteristics for Resistors and Bulbs

1.5.4 Calculating Resistance in Series and Parallel

1.5.5 Practical Circuits and Energy Consumption

2. Human Body Systems

2.1 Immune System and Diseases

2.1.1 Components of the Immune System

2.1.2 First and Second Line of Defense

2.1.3 Vaccination and Immunity

2.1.4 Pathogens: Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, and Parasites

2.1.5 Antibiotics, Resistance, and Public Health

2.2 Homeostasis and Regulation

2.2.1 Definition and Importance of Homeostasis

2.2.2 Negative Feedback Mechanisms

2.2.3 Regulation of Body Temperature

2.2.4 Control of Blood Glucose Levels

2.2.5 Disruption of Homeostasis and Disease

2.3 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

2.3.1 Structure and Function of the Heart

2.3.2 Blood Vessels: Arteries, Veins, Capillaries

2.3.3 Components and Functions of Blood

2.3.4 Structure and Function of the Lungs

2.3.5 Gas Exchange and Role of Alveoli

2.4 Digestive and Excretory Systems

2.4.1 Organs of the Digestive Tract and Their Functions

2.4.2 Mechanical vs Chemical Digestion

2.4.3 Role of Enzymes in Digestion

2.4.4 Absorption in the Small Intestine and Villi

2.4.5 Structure and Function of Kidneys and Nephrons

2.5 Nervous and Endocrine Systems

2.5.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System

2.5.2 Reflex Arcs and Response to Stimuli

2.5.3 Central and Peripheral Nervous System

2.5.4 Hormones and Their Functions

2.5.5 Comparing Nervous and Hormonal Control

3. Forces and Motion

3.1 Mass, Weight, and Gravity

3.1.1 Distinguishing Mass from Weight

3.1.2 Calculating Weight Using W = mg

3.1.3 Gravitational Field Strength on Earth and Other Planets

3.1.4 Free Fall and the Effect of Gravity

3.1.5 Weightlessness and Orbiting Objects

3.2 Friction, Air Resistance, and Terminal Velocity

3.2.1 Friction: Causes, Effects, and Reduction

3.2.2 Air Resistance and Streamlining

3.2.3 Terminal Velocity in Free Fall

3.2.4 Benefits and Drawbacks of Friction

3.2.5 Applications in Engineering and Sports

3.3 Types of Forces and Newton’s Laws

3.3.1 Types of Forces: Contact and Non-Contact

3.3.2 Newton’s First Law: Inertia and Balanced Forces

3.3.3 Newton’s Second Law: F = ma

3.3.4 Newton’s Third Law: Action and Reaction Pairs

3.3.5 Force Diagrams and Vector Representation

3.4 Balanced vs Unbalanced Forces

3.4.1 Identifying Balanced and Unbalanced Force Scenarios

3.4.2 Motion of Objects Under Balanced Forces

3.4.3 Effect of Unbalanced Forces on Motion

3.4.4 Calculating Net Force in One and Two Dimensions

3.4.5 Friction and Its Role in Balance

3.5 Motion Graphs: Distance-Time and Speed-Time

3.5.1 Interpreting Distance-Time Graphs

3.5.2 Calculating Speed from a Graph

3.5.3 Interpreting Speed-Time Graphs

3.5.4 Calculating Acceleration and Area Under Graphs

3.5.5 Describing Motion Qualitatively and Quantitatively

4. Acids, Bases, and Salts

4.1 Making and Testing Salts

4.1.1 Preparing Soluble Salts Using Different Methods

4.1.2 Using Acid + Base, Acid + Metal, Acid + Carbonate Reactions

4.1.3 Filtering, Crystallizing, and Drying a Salt

4.1.4 Testing Salts for Solubility and Identity

4.1.5 Understanding Solubility Rules for Salts

4.2 Applications of Acids and Bases

4.2.1 Acids in Industry: Cleaning, Fertilizers, Battery Acid

4.2.2 Bases in Everyday Products: Soap, Toothpaste, Drain Cleaners

4.2.3 Role of Acids and Bases in Environmental Chemistry

4.2.4 pH Control in Agriculture and Swimming Pools

4.2.5 Safety and Storage of Corrosive Substances

4.3 Properties of Acids and Bases

4.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Acids

4.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Bases

4.3.3 Common Examples and Uses of Acids and Bases

4.3.4 Laboratory Safety When Handling Acids and Bases

4.3.5 Conductivity of Acidic and Basic Solutions

4.4 pH Scale and Indicators

4.4.1 Understanding the pH Scale (0–14)

4.4.2 Using Litmus, Universal, and Natural Indicators

4.4.3 Strong vs Weak Acids and Bases (Conceptual)

4.4.4 Measuring pH Using Electronic and Paper Meters

4.4.5 Everyday Substances and Their pH Values

4.5 Neutralization Reactions

4.5.1 Definition and Real-Life Examples of Neutralization

4.5.2 Word and Symbol Equations for Neutralization

4.5.3 pH Changes During Neutralization

4.5.4 Applications: Indigestion, Agriculture, Waste Treatment

4.5.5 Heat Changes During Neutralization (Intro to Enthalpy)

5. Genetics and Reproduction

5.1 Variation and Selective Breeding

5.1.1 Sources of Genetic and Environmental Variation

5.1.2 Continuous vs Discontinuous Variation

5.1.3 Artificial Selection in Plants and Animals

5.1.4 Benefits and Risks of Selective Breeding

5.1.5 Natural Selection (Introductory Concept)

5.2 Ethical Issues in Genetics

5.2.1 Genetic Testing and Screening

5.2.2 Genetic Modification and GM Crops

5.2.3 Cloning and Its Controversies

5.2.4 Privacy, Consent, and Use of Genetic Data

5.2.5 Balancing Scientific Progress and Ethics

5.3 DNA Structure and Genetic Inheritance

5.3.1 Structure and Components of DNA

5.3.2 Chromosomes, Genes, and Nucleotides

5.3.3 How DNA Codes for Proteins (Introductory)

5.3.4 Human Genome and Genetic Information

5.3.5 Replication and Genetic Consistency

5.4 Dominant, Recessive, and Co-Dominant Traits

5.4.1 Understanding Dominant and Recessive Alleles

5.4.2 Phenotype vs Genotype

5.4.3 Punnett Squares and Genetic Crosses

5.4.4 Examples of Inherited Traits in Humans

5.4.5 Incomplete and Co-Dominance (Introductory)

5.5 Punnett Squares and Genetic Diagrams

5.5.1 Constructing and Interpreting Punnett Squares

5.5.2 Monohybrid Crosses

5.5.3 Probability and Ratios of Offspring

5.5.4 Predicting Carrier and Affected Individuals

5.5.5 Limitations and Assumptions of Punnett Models

6. Scientific Inquiry and Skills

6.1 Graphing and Data Analysis

6.1.1 Choosing Appropriate Graph Types

6.1.2 Labeling Axes and Using Scale Accurately

6.1.3 Interpreting Line Graphs, Bar Charts, and Pie Charts

6.1.4 Finding Trends and Patterns in Graphs

6.1.5 Using Graphs to Make Predictions

6.2 Evaluating Results and Drawing Conclusions

6.2.1 Analyzing Data to Support or Reject Hypothesis

6.2.2 Sources of Error and How to Reduce Them

6.2.3 Improving Experimental Design

6.2.4 Reliability, Validity, and Repetition

6.2.5 Communicating Scientific Findings Effectively

6.3 Scientific Method and Experimental Design

6.3.1 Steps of the Scientific Method

6.3.2 Formulating Testable Hypotheses

6.3.3 Designing Fair and Controlled Experiments

6.3.4 Variables: Independent, Dependent, Controlled

6.3.5 Distinguishing Between Theory, Law, and Hypothesis

6.4 Measurement, Units, and SI Conventions

6.4.1 SI Base Units and Derived Units

6.4.2 Using Prefixes: milli-, centi-, kilo-

6.4.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures

6.4.4 Instrument Selection and Measurement Techniques

6.4.5 Errors and Uncertainty in Measurements

6.5 Data Collection and Recording Techniques

6.5.1 Creating Effective Data Tables

6.5.2 Recording Observations vs Inferences

6.5.3 Use of Tally Marks, Frequency, and Time Logs

6.5.4 Recording Qualitative and Quantitative Data

6.5.5 Safety and Ethical Considerations in Data Gathering

7. Energy and Work

7.1 Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, Radiation

7.1.1 Conduction in Solids and Thermal Conductors

7.1.2 Convection in Liquids and Gases

7.1.3 Radiation and Emission of Infrared Energy

7.1.4 Comparing All Three Modes of Heat Transfer

7.1.5 Insulation Techniques and Practical Applications

7.2 Energy Transformations in Real-World Devices

7.2.1 Energy Changes in Light Bulbs, Motors, and Toasters

7.2.2 Energy in Food Chains and the Human Body

7.2.3 Battery to Mechanical Energy Conversion

7.2.4 Identifying Input and Output Energy Forms

7.2.5 Designing Energy-Efficient Systems

7.3 Forms and Conservation of Energy

7.3.1 Different Forms of Energy: Kinetic, Potential, Thermal, etc.

7.3.2 Energy Transformations and Real-Life Examples

7.3.3 Law of Conservation of Energy

7.3.4 Energy Flow in Systems

7.3.5 Useful vs Wasted Energy and Sankey Diagrams

7.4 Work, Power, and Efficiency

7.4.1 Definition and Formula for Work Done

7.4.2 Calculating Power and Energy Transfer Rate

7.4.3 Efficiency = Useful Output / Total Input × 100

7.4.4 Units: Joules, Watts, and Their Conversions

7.4.5 Improving Efficiency in Machines and Devices

7.5 Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

7.5.1 Types of Renewable Energy Sources

7.5.2 Fossil Fuels and Their Environmental Impact

7.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Energy Resources

7.5.4 Energy Resource Comparison Chart

7.5.5 Global Energy Use and Sustainability

8. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

8.1 Periodic Table: Groups and Periods

8.1.1 Structure and Organization of the Periodic Table

8.1.2 Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids

8.1.3 Identifying Groups, Periods, and Atomic Number

8.1.4 Group 1: Alkali Metals

8.1.5 Group 17: Halogens and Group 18: Noble Gases

8.2 Periodic Trends and Element Properties

8.2.1 Trends in Reactivity Down Groups

8.2.2 Trends in Atomic Radius, Ionization Energy

8.2.3 Electronegativity Across Periods

8.2.4 Chemical Properties Based on Position

8.2.5 Predicting Properties of Unknown Elements

8.3 Structure of the Atom

8.3.1 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

8.3.2 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Nuclear Symbol

8.3.3 Structure of the Nucleus and Electron Shells

8.3.4 Charge and Mass of Subatomic Particles

8.3.5 Development of Atomic Models (Dalton to Bohr)

8.4 Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass

8.4.1 Definition and Examples of Isotopes

8.4.2 Calculating Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

8.4.3 Uses of Isotopes in Medicine and Industry

8.4.4 Stability of Isotopes and Radioactivity (Intro)

8.4.5 Representing Isotopes with Notation

8.5 Electronic Configuration and Shell Model

8.5.1 Understanding Electron Shells

8.5.2 Electron Configuration Notation

8.5.3 Rules for Filling Electron Shells

8.5.4 Electronic Configuration of Ions (Intro)

8.5.5 Relating Configuration to Reactivity

9. Ecology and Environment

9.1 Biodiversity and Conservation

9.1.1 Importance of Biodiversity in Ecosystems

9.1.2 Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss, Pollution, Climate Change

9.1.3 Endangered Species and Extinction

9.1.4 Conservation Strategies and Protected Areas

9.1.5 International Agreements on Conservation

9.2 Human Impact and Climate Change

9.2.1 Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming

9.2.2 Carbon Cycle and Human Disruption

9.2.3 Deforestation, Urbanization, and Land Use

9.2.4 Sustainable Practices and Renewable Energy

9.2.5 Climate Action and Global Citizenship

9.3 Ecosystems and Trophic Levels

9.3.1 Definition and Components of an Ecosystem

9.3.2 Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers

9.3.3 Trophic Levels and Energy Transfer

9.3.4 Biomass Pyramids and Energy Pyramids

9.3.5 Limiting Factors and Ecosystem Stability

9.4 Biotic and Abiotic Factors

9.4.1 Definition and Examples of Abiotic Factors

9.4.2 How Biotic Factors Influence Population Size

9.4.3 Adaptations to Environmental Conditions

9.4.4 Interdependence in Communities

9.4.5 Ecosystem Changes Due to Natural and Human Causes

9.5 Food Webs, Pyramids, and Energy Flow

9.5.1 Constructing and Analyzing Food Webs

9.5.2 Energy Loss at Each Trophic Level

9.5.3 Bioaccumulation and Toxins

9.5.4 Ecological Efficiency and Energy Flow

9.5.5 Disruption of Food Webs

10. Cells and Biological Processes

10.1 Enzymes and Metabolism

10.1.1 Structure and Function of Enzymes

10.1.2 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

10.1.3 Enzyme Specificity and Active Site

10.1.4 Denaturation and pH/Temperature Effects

10.1.5 Role of Enzymes in Digestion and Respiration

10.2 Energy in Cells: Respiration and Photosynthesis

10.2.1 Word and Symbol Equations for Respiration

10.2.2 Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration

10.2.3 Photosynthesis Equation and Factors

10.2.4 Leaf Structure and Adaptations for Photosynthesis

10.2.5 Interdependence of Photosynthesis and Respiration

10.3 Cell Structure and Microscopy

10.3.1 Structure and Function of Animal and Plant Cells

10.3.2 Specialized Cells and Their Adaptations

10.3.3 Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

10.3.4 Using Light Microscopes and Staining Techniques

10.3.5 Calculating Magnification and Image Size

10.4 Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis

10.4.1 Cell Cycle and Mitosis

10.4.2 Functions of Mitosis in Growth and Repair

10.4.3 Introduction to Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

10.4.4 Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

10.4.5 Chromosome Behavior and Genetic Continuity

10.5 Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active Transport

10.5.1 Definition and Examples of Diffusion

10.5.2 Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion

10.5.3 Osmosis in Cells and Living Systems

10.5.4 Active Transport and Energy Requirement

10.5.5 Importance of Transport in Organisms

11. Chemical Reactions and Bonding

11.1 Types of Reactions

11.1.1 Combination and Decomposition Reactions

11.1.2 Single and Double Displacement Reactions

11.1.3 Combustion Reactions (Complete and Incomplete)

11.1.4 Precipitation and Gas Formation Reactions

11.1.5 Observing Chemical Change: Color, Gas, Temperature, Precipitate

11.2 Reactivity Series and Reaction Predictions

11.2.1 Reactivity of Metals with Water, Acid, and Oxygen

11.2.2 The Reactivity Series of Metals

11.2.3 Displacement Reactions Using Metals

11.2.4 Predicting Products Based on Reactivity

11.2.5 Applications of Reactivity in Industry and Everyday Life

11.3 Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Bonding

11.3.1 Ions and Formation of Ionic Bonds

11.3.2 Properties of Ionic Compounds

11.3.3 Formation and Diagrams of Covalent Bonds

11.3.4 Properties of Covalent Compounds

11.3.5 Structure and Properties of Metallic Bonds

11.4 Chemical Formulas and Equations

11.4.1 Writing Chemical Formulas of Compounds

11.4.2 Word Equations and Symbol Equations

11.4.3 State Symbols in Chemical Reactions

11.4.4 Identifying Reactants and Products

11.4.5 Introduction to Moles and Formula Mass (Optional Extension)

11.5 Balancing Equations and Conservation of Mass

11.5.1 Law of Conservation of Mass

11.5.2 Balancing Simple Chemical Equations

11.5.3 Balancing Complex Reactions with Polyatomic Ions

11.5.4 Mass Changes in Closed and Open Systems

11.5.5 Predicting Products Using Balanced Equations

12. Waves, Sound, and Light

12.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Its Uses

12.1.1 Order and Properties of EM Waves

12.1.2 Visible Light and Color Dispersion

12.1.3 Uses of EM Waves: Radio, Microwaves, Infrared, Ultraviolet, X-rays, Gamma Rays

12.1.4 Dangers and Precautions of EM Radiation

12.1.5 Comparing EM Waves: Speed, Wavelength, Frequency

12.2 Light in Communication and Technology

12.2.1 Fiber Optics and Total Internal Reflection

12.2.2 Lasers and Optical Devices

12.2.3 Wave Transmission in Phones and Satellites

12.2.4 Digital vs Analog Signals (Introductory)

12.2.5 Applications of Light and Sound in Modern Tech

12.3 Wave Properties and Types

12.3.1 Definition and Examples of Waves

12.3.2 Transverse vs Longitudinal Waves

12.3.3 Wave Parameters: Wavelength, Frequency, Amplitude

12.3.4 Speed of a Wave: v = fλ

12.3.5 Identifying Crest, Trough, Compression, and Rarefaction

12.4 Sound Waves and Their Behavior

12.4.1 Production and Transmission of Sound

12.4.2 Speed of Sound in Solids, Liquids, and Gases

12.4.3 Echoes, Reflections, and Absorption of Sound

12.4.4 Pitch, Loudness, and Frequency Relationship

12.4.5 Applications: Sonar, Ultrasound, and Musical Instruments

12.5 Reflection and Refraction of Light

12.5.1 Laws of Reflection

12.5.2 Plane, Concave, and Convex Mirrors

12.5.3 Refraction Through Glass Blocks and Water

12.5.4 Lenses: Converging and Diverging (Introductory)

12.5.5 Ray Diagrams and Image Formation Basics

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Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids

Introduction