Understanding mass defect and binding energy is fundamental in nuclear physics, particularly for students preparing for the AS & A Level examinations in Physics (9702). These concepts explain the stability of atomic nuclei and the energy changes during nuclear reactions, providing insights into processes such as nuclear fusion and fission.

Key Concepts

Mass Defect: Definition and Significance

Mass defect refers to the difference between the mass of an entirely separated nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual protons and neutrons. This difference arises because some mass is converted into binding energy when the nucleus is formed.

Calculating Mass Defect

To calculate the mass defect ($\Delta m$), use the formula: $$ \Delta m = (Zm_p + Nm_n) - m_{\text{nucleus}} $$ where $Z$ is the number of protons, $N$ is the number of neutrons, $m_p$ is the mass of a proton, $m_n$ is the mass of a neutron, and $m_{\text{nucleus}}$ is the actual mass of the nucleus.

Binding Energy: Definition and Importance

Binding energy ($E_b$) is the energy required to disassemble a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons. It is a measure of the stability of a nucleus; higher binding energy indicates a more stable nucleus.

Relationship Between Mass Defect and Binding Energy

The binding energy is directly related to the mass defect through Einstein's mass-energy equivalence principle, expressed by the equation: $$ E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2 $$ where $c$ is the speed of light ($3 \times 10^8 \, \text{m/s}$).

Calculating Binding Energy

Given the mass defect, the binding energy can be calculated as follows: $$ E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2 $$ For example, if the mass defect of a nucleus is $0.005 \, \text{u}$, the binding energy is: $$ E_b = 0.005 \, \text{u} \times 931.5 \, \text{MeV/u} = 4.6575 \, \text{MeV} $$

Significance in Nuclear Reactions

During nuclear reactions, mass defect and binding energy play crucial roles. In fusion, lighter nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus with a mass defect, releasing energy. In fission, a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei with a combined mass defect, also releasing energy. These processes are harnessed in nuclear power and weapons.

Example: Calculating Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Consider the helium-4 nucleus ($^4_2\text{He}$). It has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The masses are:

Proton mass ($m_p$) = 1.007276 u
Neutron mass ($m_n$) = 1.008665 u
Helium-4 nucleus mass ($m_{\text{nucleus}}$) = 4.002603 u

The mass defect is: $$ \Delta m = (2 \times 1.007276 \, \text{u} + 2 \times 1.008665 \, \text{u}) - 4.002603 \, \text{u} = 0.030899 \, \text{u} $$ The binding energy is: $$ E_b = 0.030899 \, \text{u} \times 931.5 \, \text{MeV/u} \approx 28.8 \, \text{MeV} $$

Mass Defect in Different Elements

The mass defect varies among different elements and isotopes. Generally, nuclei with higher binding energies per nucleon are more stable. Iron-56 has one of the highest binding energies per nucleon, making it highly stable.

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Binding energy per nucleon ($E_b / A$) is a useful metric to compare the stability of different nuclei. It is calculated by dividing the total binding energy by the number of nucleons ($A = Z + N$).

Example: Binding Energy per Nucleon

Using the helium-4 example: $$ E_b / A = 28.8 \, \text{MeV} / 4 = 7.2 \, \text{MeV/nucleon} $$ This value can be compared to other nuclei to assess relative stability.

Factors Affecting Binding Energy

Several factors influence binding energy, including:

Nuclear Force: The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons together.
Coulomb Repulsion: Electrostatic repulsion between protons can reduce binding energy.
Nuclear Shell Structure: Magic numbers of protons or neutrons lead to more stable nuclei.

Applications of Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Mass defect and binding energy are essential in various applications:

Nuclear Energy: Understanding binding energy is crucial for harnessing nuclear fusion and fission.
Astrophysics: Binding energy influences stellar processes and nucleosynthesis.
Medical Physics: Nuclear reactions are used in imaging and radiation therapy.

Measuring Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Experimental techniques such as mass spectrometry and nuclear spectroscopy are employed to measure nuclear masses and calculate mass defects and binding energies accurately.

Nuclear Stability and Binding Energy

There is a direct correlation between binding energy and nuclear stability. Nuclei with higher binding energies per nucleon are generally more stable and less likely to undergo radioactive decay.

Graphical Representation

A graph of binding energy per nucleon versus atomic mass number ($A$) typically shows a peak around iron (Fe), indicating maximum stability.

Advanced Concepts

In-Depth Theoretical Explanations

The theoretical foundation of mass defect and binding energy is rooted in the interplay between the strong nuclear force and electromagnetic force within the nucleus. The strong force acts over short ranges to bind protons and neutrons, overcoming the electromagnetic repulsion between positively charged protons.

The Semi-Empirical Mass Formula (SEMF), also known as the Bethe-Weizsäcker formula, provides a quantitative description of the binding energy of nuclei. It accounts for various factors such as volume energy, surface energy, Coulomb repulsion, asymmetry energy, and pairing energy: $$ E_b = a_v A - a_s A^{2/3} - a_c \frac{Z^2}{A^{1/3}} - a_a \frac{(A - 2Z)^2}{A} + \delta $$ where $A$ is the mass number, $Z$ the atomic number, and $a_v$, $a_s$, $a_c$, $a_a$ are empirical constants.

Mathematical Derivation of Binding Energy

Starting from Einstein's mass-energy equivalence, the binding energy can be derived by considering the total mass of protons and neutrons in a nucleus and the actual mass of the nucleus. The loss of mass ($\Delta m$) during the formation of the nucleus results in the binding energy: $$ E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2 $$ This derivation underscores the conversion of mass into energy within the nucleus.

Complex Problem-Solving

Consider the carbon-12 nucleus ($^{12}_6\text{C}$) with 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Given the masses:

Proton mass ($m_p$) = 1.007276 u
Neutron mass ($m_n$) = 1.008665 u
Carbon-12 nucleus mass ($m_{\text{nucleus}}$) = 12.000000 u (by definition)

Calculate the mass defect and binding energy.

First, calculate the total mass of protons and neutrons: $$ (6 \times 1.007276) + (6 \times 1.008665) = 6.043656 \, \text{u} + 6.051990 \, \text{u} = 12.095646 \, \text{u} $$ Mass defect: $$ \Delta m = 12.095646 \, \text{u} - 12.000000 \, \text{u} = 0.095646 \, \text{u} $$ Binding energy: $$ E_b = 0.095646 \, \text{u} \times 931.5 \, \text{MeV/u} \approx 89.1 \, \text{MeV} $$

Interdisciplinary Connections

Mass defect and binding energy intersect with various scientific disciplines:

Astrophysics: Stellar nucleosynthesis relies on nuclear binding energy to explain the formation of elements in stars.
Chemistry: Nuclear reactions impact isotope formation and stability, influencing chemical properties.
Engineering: Nuclear energy applications depend on understanding binding energy for reactor design and safety.
Medicine: Radioisotopes used in diagnostics and treatments are governed by nuclear stability principles.

Advanced Applications

Beyond energy generation, mass defect and binding energy are pivotal in:

Medical Imaging: PET scans utilize positron emission, a process governed by nuclear binding energies.
Astroparticle Physics: Understanding cosmic ray interactions requires knowledge of nuclear binding energies.
Material Science: Nuclear properties influence the behavior of materials under irradiation.

Neutron Stars and Binding Energy

In astrophysics, neutron stars exhibit extreme binding energies. The balance between gravitational forces and neutron degeneracy pressure is a direct consequence of nuclear binding energies at such high densities.

Nuclear Fusion and Fission

Nuclear fusion combines light nuclei, increasing binding energy per nucleon, releasing energy. Conversely, nuclear fission splits heavy nuclei, also increasing binding energy per nucleon and releasing energy. Both processes are foundational for nuclear power and weaponry.

Quantum Mechanics and Binding Energy

Quantum mechanical principles govern nuclear binding energies. The shell model of the nucleus explains magic numbers and enhanced stability through quantized energy levels of protons and neutrons.

Pairing Energy

Pairing energy accounts for the increased stability of nuclei with even numbers of protons and neutrons. It is an integral part of the SEMF and influences binding energy calculations.

Isotope Stability

Isotopes with optimal binding energies exhibit greater nuclear stability. Understanding binding energy trends aids in predicting radioactive decay modes and half-lives.

Energy Released in Stellar Processes

The energy produced in stars through fusion processes is a direct result of binding energy changes. The sun's energy is primarily from the fusion of hydrogen into helium, releasing vast amounts of energy due to mass defect.

Comparison Table

Aspect	Mass Defect	Binding Energy
Definition	The difference between the mass of separated nucleons and the mass of the nucleus.	The energy required to disassemble a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons.
Unit	Atomic mass units (u)	Electron volts (MeV)
Formula	$\Delta m = (Zm_p + Nm_n) - m_{\text{nucleus}}$	$E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2$
Significance	Indicates the mass converted to energy during nucleus formation.	Measures nuclear stability and energy changes in nuclear reactions.
Applications	Calculating differences in nuclear masses.	Understanding energy release in fusion and fission.

Summary and Key Takeaways

Mass defect is the difference between the mass of separated nucleons and the actual mass of the nucleus.
Binding energy is the energy required to disassemble a nucleus, directly related to mass defect.
Higher binding energy per nucleon indicates a more stable nucleus.
Mass defect and binding energy are crucial for understanding nuclear reactions and stability.
These concepts have wide-ranging applications in energy, astrophysics, medicine, and more.

Examiner Tip

Tips

To master mass defect and binding energy, remember the equation $E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2$ as "Energy is Mass times the Speed of light squared." Use the mnemonic "PMNC" to recall the components: Protons ($m_p$), Neutrons ($m_n$), Nucleus mass ($m_{\text{nucleus}}$), and Conversion to energy. Practice by working through multiple examples to solidify the conversion between mass units and energy units. Additionally, always double-check your calculations to ensure you’ve accounted for all nucleons and properly applied the formulas.

Did You Know

The concept of mass defect is so precise that the mass lost during nuclear reactions is only a few billionths of a gram, yet it accounts for the vast energy released in nuclear power plants. Additionally, mass defect explains why the sun can emit energy continuously through nuclear fusion, despite the incredibly small mass changes involved. Interestingly, the stability of some of the heaviest elements in the periodic table is directly related to their binding energy, making mass defect a key factor in understanding atomic longevity.

Common Mistakes

Students often confuse mass defect with mass excess, leading to incorrect calculations of binding energy. For example, mistakenly adding masses instead of subtracting them can result in a negative mass defect. Another common error is forgetting to convert atomic mass units (u) to energy units like MeV when calculating binding energy, which skews the final result. Additionally, neglecting to account for all protons and neutrons in a nucleus can cause inaccurate determination of the mass defect and, consequently, the binding energy.

FAQ

What is mass defect?

Mass defect is the difference between the mass of a completely separated nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual protons and neutrons. This loss of mass is converted into binding energy that holds the nucleus together.

How is binding energy calculated?

Binding energy is calculated using the formula $E_b = \Delta m \cdot c^2$, where $\Delta m$ is the mass defect and $c$ is the speed of light. This equation shows how the lost mass during nucleus formation is converted into energy.

Why is binding energy important?

Binding energy indicates the stability of a nucleus. A higher binding energy means a more stable nucleus, making it less likely to undergo radioactive decay. It also explains the energy released during nuclear reactions like fission and fusion.

How does mass defect relate to nuclear stability?

Mass defect is directly related to nuclear stability through binding energy. A larger mass defect results in higher binding energy, which means the nucleus is more stable and less prone to breaking apart.

What is the difference between mass defect and binding energy?

Mass defect is the actual loss of mass when a nucleus is formed from protons and neutrons, while binding energy is the energy equivalent of that lost mass. Essentially, mass defect quantifies the mass loss, and binding energy quantifies the energy associated with that mass loss.

1. Capacitance

1.1 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

1.1.1 Determine electric potential energy stored in a capacitor from the area under the potential–charge g

1.1.2 Recall and use W = ½QV = ½CV²

1.2 Discharging a Capacitor

1.2.1 Analyze graphs of potential difference, charge, and current during capacitor discharge

1.2.2 Recall and use τ = RC for the time constant during discharge

1.2.3 Use equations of the form x = x₀e^(-t / RC) for current, charge, or potential during discharge

1.3 Capacitors and Capacitance

1.3.1 Define capacitance for isolated spherical conductors and parallel plate capacitors

1.3.2 Recall and use C = Q / V

1.3.3 Derive formulae for combined capacitance of capacitors in series and parallel

1.3.4 Use capacitance formulae for capacitors in series and parallel

2. Nuclear Physics

2.1 Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy

2.1.1 Sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number

2.1.2 Explain nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

2.1.3 Calculate the energy released in nuclear reactions using E = c²∆m

2.1.4 Understand the equivalence between energy and mass (E = mc²)

2.1.5 Define and use the terms mass defect and binding energy

2.2 Radioactive Decay

2.2.1 Understand that fluctuations in count rate provide evidence for random decay

2.2.2 Understand that radioactive decay is spontaneous and random

2.2.3 Define activity and decay constant, and recall A = λN

2.2.4 Define half-life

2.2.5 Use λ = 0.693 / t₁/₂ for the half-life relationship

2.2.6 Understand exponential decay and use the relationship x = x₀e^(-λt)

3. Kinematics

3.1 Equations of Motion

3.1.1 Define and use distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration

3.1.2 Use graphical methods to represent motion

3.1.3 Determine displacement from velocity–time graph

3.1.4 Determine velocity using gradient of displacement–time graph

3.1.5 Determine acceleration using gradient of velocity–time graph

3.1.6 Derive equations for uniformly accelerated motion

3.1.7 Solve problems of uniformly accelerated motion

3.1.8 Describe experiment to determine acceleration due to gravity

3.1.9 Explain motion with uniform velocity and perpendicular acceleration

4. Deformation of Solids

4.1 Stress and Strain

4.1.1 Understand and use the terms load, extension, compression, and limit of proportionality

4.1.2 Recall and use Hooke’s law

4.1.3 Recall and use the formula for spring constant k = F / x

4.1.4 Define and use terms stress, strain, and Young's modulus

4.1.5 Describe an experiment to determine Young’s modulus

4.1.6 Understand deformation caused by tensile or compressive forces

4.2 Elastic and Plastic Behaviour

4.2.1 Understand elastic and plastic deformation and elastic limit

4.2.2 Understand area under the force–extension graph as work done

4.2.3 Calculate elastic potential energy using EP = ½kx²

5. Gravitational Fields

5.1 Gravitational Field of a Point Mass

5.1.1 Understand that g is approximately constant for small height changes near Earth's surface

5.1.2 Recall and use g = GM / r²

5.1.3 Derive and use g = GM / r² for gravitational field strength

5.2 Gravitational Potential

5.2.1 Define gravitational potential as work done per unit mass in bringing a test mass from infinity

5.2.2 Use ϕ = -GM / r for gravitational potential due to a point mass

5.2.3 Use EP = -GMm / r for gravitational potential energy between two point masses

5.3 Gravitational Field

5.3.1 Define gravitational field as force per unit mass

5.3.2 Represent a gravitational field using field lines

5.4 Gravitational Force Between Point Masses

5.4.1 For point outside uniform sphere, treat mass as a point mass at its center

5.4.2 Analyze circular orbits in gravitational fields

5.4.3 Recall and use Newton's law of gravitation F = Gm₁m₂ / r²

6. Electricity

6.1 Resistance and Resistivity

6.1.1 Understand that the resistance of a thermistor decreases as temperature increases

6.1.2 Define resistance and recall and use V = IR

6.1.3 Sketch I–V characteristics for metallic conductor, semiconductor diode, and filament lamp

6.1.4 Explain that the resistance of a filament lamp increases as current increases

6.1.5 State Ohm’s law and recall and use R = ρL / A

6.1.6 Understand that the resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases

6.2 Electric Current

6.2.1 Understand that an electric current is a flow of charge carriers

6.2.2 Understand that the charge on charge carriers is quantised

6.2.3 Recall and use Q = It

6.2.4 Use I = Anvq for current-carrying conductors

6.3 Potential Difference and Power

6.3.1 Define potential difference as energy transferred per unit charge

6.3.2 Recall and use V = W / Q

6.3.3 Recall and use P = VI, P = I²R, P = V² / R

7. D.C. Circuits

7.1 Practical Circuits

7.1.1 Recall and use the circuit symbols in the syllabus

7.1.2 Draw and interpret circuit diagrams using circuit symbols

7.1.3 Define electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source as energy transferred per unit charge

7.1.4 Distinguish between e.m.f. and potential difference (p.d.)

7.1.5 Understand the effects of internal resistance on terminal potential difference

7.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws

7.2.1 Recall Kirchhoff’s first law: conservation of charge

7.2.2 Recall Kirchhoff’s second law: conservation of energy

7.2.3 Derive the formula for combined resistance of resistors in series using Kirchhoff’s laws

7.2.4 Use the formula for combined resistance of resistors in series

7.2.5 Derive the formula for combined resistance of resistors in parallel using Kirchhoff’s laws

7.2.6 Use the formula for combined resistance of resistors in parallel

7.2.7 Use Kirchhoff’s laws to solve simple circuit problems

7.3 Potential Dividers

7.3.1 Understand the principle of a potential divider circuit

7.3.2 Recall and use the principle of the potentiometer for comparing potential differences

7.3.3 Understand the use of a galvanometer in null methods

7.3.4 Explain the use of thermistors and LDRs in potential dividers to provide a potential dependent on te

8. Thermal Equilibrium

8.1 Thermal Energy Transfer

8.1.1 Understand that thermal energy transfers from higher to lower temperature

8.1.2 Understand that regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium

9. Temperature Scales

9.1 Temperature Measurement

9.1.1 Understand physical properties that vary with temperature (e.g., density, gas volume, resistance)

9.1.2 Convert temperatures between Kelvin and Celsius, and recall T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.15

10. Magnetic Fields

10.1 Concept of a Magnetic Field

10.1.1 Understand that a magnetic field is a field of force produced by moving charges or permanent magnets

10.1.2 Represent a magnetic field using field lines

10.2 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

10.2.1 Understand that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

10.2.2 Recall and use F = BIL sin θ for the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

10.2.3 Define magnetic flux density as the force per unit current per unit length on a wire at right angles

10.3 Force on a Moving Charge

10.3.1 Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field

10.3.2 Recall and use F = BQv sin θ for the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

10.3.3 Understand the origin of the Hall voltage and use the expression VH = BI / (ntq) for the Hall voltag

10.3.4 Understand the use of a Hall probe to measure magnetic flux density

10.4 Magnetic Fields Due to Currents

10.4.1 Sketch magnetic field patterns due to currents in a straight wire, flat coil, and solenoid

10.4.2 Understand that magnetic field in a solenoid is increased by a ferrous core

10.4.3 Explain the origin of forces between current-carrying conductors and determine the direction of the

10.5 Electromagnetic Induction

10.5.1 Define magnetic flux as the product of magnetic flux density and area perpendicular to flux directio

10.5.2 Recall and use Φ = BA for magnetic flux

10.5.3 Understand and use the concept of magnetic flux linkage

10.5.4 Explain experiments that show changing magnetic flux induces an e.m.f.

10.5.5 Recall and use Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws of electromagnetic induction

11. Specific Heat Capacity and Latent Heat

11.1 Specific Heat Capacity

11.1.1 Define and use specific heat capacity

11.2 Latent Heat

11.2.1 Define and use specific latent heat; distinguish between fusion and vaporisation

12. Dynamics

12.1 Momentum and Newton’s Laws of Motion

12.1.1 Mass resists change in motion

12.1.2 Recall F = ma and solve related problems

12.1.3 Define and use linear momentum

12.1.4 Force as rate of change of momentum

12.1.5 State and apply Newton’s laws

12.1.6 Describe weight as effect of gravitational field

12.1.7 Weight of an object is mass × gravitational acceleration

12.2 Non-uniform Motion

12.2.1 Understand frictional and drag forces

12.2.2 Describe motion in uniform gravitational field with air resistance

12.2.3 Objects moving against resistive force may reach terminal velocity

12.3 Linear Momentum and its Conservation

12.3.1 State conservation of momentum

12.3.2 Apply conservation of momentum to solve problems

12.3.3 For elastic collision, kinetic energy and relative speed are conserved

12.3.4 Momentum is conserved, but some kinetic energy may change

13. Medical Physics

13.1 Production and Use of Ultrasound

13.1.1 Understand that a piezo-electric crystal changes shape when a p.d. is applied and generates an e.m.f

13.1.2 Understand how ultrasound waves are generated and detected by a piezoelectric transducer

13.1.3 Understand how ultrasound reflection at boundaries provides diagnostic information about internal st

13.1.4 Define specific acoustic impedance as Z = ρc

13.1.5 Use the equation IR / I₀ = (Z₁ – Z₂)² / (Z₁ + Z₂)² for the intensity reflection coefficient

13.2 Production and Use of X-rays

13.2.1 Explain that X-rays are produced by electron bombardment of a metal target and calculate the minimum

13.2.2 Understand the use of X-rays in imaging internal body structures and the term 'contrast' in X-ray im

13.2.3 Recall and use I = I₀e^(-μx) for the attenuation of X-rays in matter

13.2.4 Understand how computed tomography (CT) produces 3D images by combining multiple 2D X-ray images

13.3 PET Scanning

13.3.1 Understand that a tracer contains radioactive nuclei and is introduced into the body for imaging

13.3.2 Understand that β+ decay is used in positron emission tomography (PET)

13.3.3 Understand that annihilation occurs when a particle interacts with its antiparticle, conserving mass

13.3.4 Explain how gamma-ray photons from annihilation are detected to create an image of tracer concentrat

14. Waves

14.1 Progressive Waves

14.1.1 Describe wave motion in ropes, springs, and ripple tanks

14.1.2 Understand and use the terms displacement, amplitude, phase difference, period, frequency, wavelengt

14.1.3 Use time-base and y-gain on a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) to determine frequency and amplitude

14.1.4 Derive and use v = f λ for the wave equation

14.1.5 Recall and use v = f λ

14.1.6 Understand energy transfer by a progressive wave

14.1.7 Recall and use intensity = power / area, intensity ∝ (amplitude)²

14.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

14.2.1 Compare transverse and longitudinal waves

14.2.2 Analyze and interpret graphical representations of transverse and longitudinal waves

14.3 Doppler Effect for Sound Waves

14.3.1 Understand the change in frequency when a sound source moves relative to a stationary observer

14.3.2 Use the expression f₀ = fₛ(v / (v ± vₛ)) for the observed frequency

14.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum

14.4.1 State all electromagnetic waves are transverse waves traveling at the same speed in free space

14.4.2 Recall the range of wavelengths from radio waves to γ-rays

14.4.3 Recall that wavelengths 400–700 nm are visible to the human eye

14.5 Polarisation

14.5.1 Understand that polarisation is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves

14.5.2 Recall and use Malus's law (I = I₀ cos²θ) to calculate intensity of a plane-polarised wave after pas

15. The Mole

15.1 The Mole

15.1.1 Understand that amount of substance is an SI base quantity with the unit mol

15.1.2 Use molar quantities where one mole contains Avogadro's constant of particles

16. Equation of State

16.1 Ideal Gas Law

16.1.1 Understand that a gas obeying pV ∝ T is an ideal gas

16.1.2 Recall and use the equation pV = nRT for an ideal gas

16.1.3 Recall pV = NkT, where N = number of molecules and k is Boltzmann constant

16.1.4 Use the relationship k = R / NA

17. Kinetic Theory of Gases

17.1 Kinetic Theory

17.1.1 State the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases

17.1.2 Explain pressure exerted by a gas due to molecular movement

17.1.3 Derive and use pV = (3/2)NmkT for pressure of a gas

17.1.4 Compare pV = (3/2)NmkT with pV = NkT to deduce average kinetic energy of a molecule

18. Particle Physics

18.1 Atoms, Nuclei and Radiation

18.1.1 Infer the existence and small size of the nucleus from α-particle scattering

18.1.2 Describe the nuclear atom model: protons, neutrons, and electrons

18.1.3 Distinguish between nucleon number and proton number

18.1.4 Understand isotopes as forms of the same element with different neutrons

18.1.5 Use the notation AZX for nuclides representation

18.1.6 Understand conservation of nucleon number and charge in nuclear processes

18.1.7 Describe the composition, mass, and charge of α-, β-, and γ-radiations

18.1.8 Understand antiparticles and positrons as antiparticles of electrons

18.1.9 State that (electron) antineutrinos are produced during β- decay and neutrinos during β+ decay

18.1.10 Represent α- and β-decay using radioactive decay equations

18.1.11 Use unified atomic mass unit (u) for mass

18.2 Fundamental Particles

18.2.1 Understand quarks as fundamental particles with six flavours

18.2.2 Understand hadrons as baryons (three quarks) or mesons (one quark and one antiquark)

18.2.3 Describe changes in quark composition during β- and β+ decay

18.2.4 Describe protons and neutrons as composed of quarks

18.2.5 Recall and use the charge of each quark and its respective antiquark

18.2.6 Recall electrons and neutrinos as fundamental particles (leptons)

19. Internal Energy

19.1 Internal Energy

19.1.1 Understand that internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of molecules in a syste

19.1.2 Relate rise in temperature to an increase in internal energy

20. Forces, Density and Pressure

20.1 Turning Effects of Forces

20.1.1 Weight acts at a single point: centre of gravity

20.1.2 Define and apply the moment of a force

20.1.3 Understand the concept of a couple

20.1.4 Define and apply torque of a couple

20.2 Equilibrium of Forces

20.2.1 State and apply the principle of moments

20.2.2 System in equilibrium has no resultant force or torque

20.2.3 Use a vector triangle to represent coplanar forces in equilibrium

20.3 Density and Pressure

20.3.1 Define and use density

20.3.2 Define and use pressure

20.3.3 Derive equation for hydrostatic pressure ∆p = ρg∆h

20.3.4 Use the equation ∆p = ρg∆h

20.3.5 Understand upthrust as the effect of hydrostatic pressure

20.3.6 Calculate upthrust using F = ρgV (Archimedes' principle)

21. Astronomy and Cosmology

21.1 Standard Candles

21.1.1 Understand luminosity as the total power radiated by a star

21.1.2 Recall and use the inverse square law F = L / (4πd²) for radiant flux intensity

21.1.3 Understand that an object with known luminosity is a standard candle

21.1.4 Use standard candles to determine distances to galaxies

21.2 Stellar Radii

21.2.1 Recall and use Wien’s displacement law λmax ∝ 1 / T to estimate the surface temperature of a star

21.2.2 Use Stefan–Boltzmann law L = 4πσr²T⁴

21.2.3 Use Wien’s law and Stefan–Boltzmann law to estimate the radius of a star

21.3 Hubble’s Law and Big Bang Theory

21.3.1 Understand redshift and the increase in wavelength of light from distant objects

21.3.2 Use ∆λ / λ = ∆f / f = v / c for redshift

21.3.3 Explain why redshift suggests the Universe is expanding

21.3.4 Recall and use Hubble’s law v = H₀d to explain the Big Bang theory

22. First Law of Thermodynamics

22.1 First Law

22.1.1 Recall and use W = p∆V for work done when the volume of a gas changes at constant pressure

22.1.2 Understand the difference between work done by a gas and work done on a gas

22.1.3 Recall and use the first law of thermodynamics: ∆U = q + W

23. Alternating Currents

23.1 Characteristics of Alternating Currents

23.1.1 Understand and use terms period, frequency, and peak value for alternating current or voltage

23.1.2 Use x = x₀ sin(ωt) for sinusoidal alternating current or voltage

23.1.3 Recall that the mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for sinusoidal current

23.1.4 Distinguish between root-mean-square (r.m.s.) and peak values and recall I₀r.m.s = I₀ / √2 and V₀r.m

23.2 Rectification and Smoothing

23.2.1 Distinguish graphically between half-wave and full-wave rectification

23.2.2 Explain the use of a single diode for half-wave rectification

23.2.3 Explain the use of four diodes (bridge rectifier) for full-wave rectification

23.2.4 Analyze the effect of a capacitor in smoothing, including the effect of capacitance and load resista

24. Superposition

24.1 Stationary Waves

24.1.1 Explain and use the principle of superposition

24.1.2 Understand experiments demonstrating stationary waves using microwaves, stretched strings, and air c

24.1.3 Explain the formation of stationary waves using graphical methods and identify nodes and antinodes

24.1.4 Determine wavelength from the positions of nodes or antinodes

24.2 Diffraction

24.2.1 Explain diffraction and show understanding of related experiments

24.2.2 Understand the effect of gap width relative to wavelength in diffraction experiments

24.3 Interference

24.3.1 Understand the terms interference and coherence

24.3.2 Demonstrate two-source interference using water waves, sound, light, and microwaves

24.3.3 Understand the conditions required for two-source interference fringes

24.3.4 Recall and use λ = ax / D for double-slit interference with light

24.4 Diffraction Grating

24.4.1 Recall and use d sin θ = nλ for diffraction grating calculations

24.4.2 Describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light

25. Simple Harmonic Oscillations

25.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

25.1.1 Understand and use terms displacement, amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency, and phase di

25.1.2 Understand that simple harmonic motion occurs when acceleration is proportional to displacement from

25.1.3 Use a = -ω²x and recall x = x₀ sin(ωt) as the solution

25.1.4 Use v = v₀ cos(ωt) and v = ±ω√(x₀² - x²) for velocity

26. Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

26.1 Energy in SHM

26.1.1 Describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy during SHM

26.1.2 Recall and use E = ½mω²x₀² for the total energy of a system undergoing SHM

27. Quantum Physics

27.1 Energy and Momentum of a Photon

27.1.1 Understand that electromagnetic radiation has a particulate nature

27.1.2 Recall and use E = hf for the energy of a photon

27.1.3 Use the electronvolt (eV) as a unit of energy

27.1.4 Understand that a photon has momentum and use p = E / c for photon momentum

27.2 Photoelectric Effect

27.2.1 Understand that photoelectrons are emitted from a metal surface when illuminated by electromagnetic

27.2.2 Understand and use the terms threshold frequency and threshold wavelength

27.2.3 Explain photoelectric emission in terms of photon energy and work function

27.2.4 Recall and use hf = Φ + ½mv² for the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons

27.2.5 Explain why the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of intensity, while current

27.3 Wave-Particle Duality

27.3.1 Understand that the photoelectric effect shows the particulate nature of light, while diffraction sh

27.3.2 Describe and interpret electron diffraction as evidence for the wave nature of particles

27.3.3 Understand the de Broglie wavelength as the wavelength associated with a moving particle

27.3.4 Recall and use λ = h / p for de Broglie wavelength

27.4 Energy Levels in Atoms and Line Spectra

27.4.1 Understand discrete electron energy levels in atoms (e.g., atomic hydrogen)

27.4.2 Understand the appearance and formation of emission and absorption line spectra

27.4.3 Recall and use hf = E₁ – E₂ for the energy difference between electron energy levels

28. Damped and Forced Oscillations, Resonance

28.1 Damped Oscillations

28.1.1 Understand that damping occurs due to resistive forces

28.1.2 Understand the types of damping: light, critical, and heavy damping

28.2 Resonance

28.2.1 Understand that resonance occurs when an oscillating system is forced to oscillate at its natural fr

29. Work, Energy and Power

29.1 Energy Conservation

29.1.1 Understand the concept of work, and recall W = F × s

29.1.2 Apply the principle of conservation of energy

29.1.3 Understand efficiency as useful energy output / total energy input

29.1.4 Use efficiency concept to solve problems

29.1.5 Define power as work done per unit time

29.1.6 Solve problems using P = W / t

29.1.7 Derive P = Fv and solve problems

29.2 Gravitational Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy

29.2.1 Derive ∆EP = mg∆h for gravitational potential energy changes

29.2.2 Recall and use ∆EP = mg∆h for gravitational potential energy changes

29.2.3 Derive EK = ½mv² for kinetic energy

29.2.4 Recall and use EK = ½mv² for kinetic energy

30. Electric Fields

30.1 Electric Fields and Field Lines

30.1.1 Understand that an electric field is a field of force and define it as force per unit positive charg

30.1.2 Represent an electric field using field lines

30.2 Uniform Electric Fields

30.2.1 Recall and use E = ∆V / ∆d to calculate electric field strength between charged parallel plates

30.2.2 Describe the effect of a uniform electric field on the motion of charged particles

30.3 Electric Force Between Point Charges

30.3.1 Understand that, for a point outside a spherical conductor, the charge may be considered a point mas

30.3.2 Recall and use Coulomb’s law F = Q₁Q₂ / (4πε₀r²) for the force between two point charges

30.4 Electric Field of a Point Charge

30.4.1 Recall and use E = Q / (4πε₀r²) for the electric field strength due to a point charge

30.5 Electric Potential

30.5.1 Define electric potential as work done per unit positive charge in bringing a test charge from infin

30.5.2 Recall and use V = Q / (4πε₀r) for electric potential due to a point charge

30.5.3 Understand how electric potential leads to electric potential energy of two point charges and use EP

31. Physical Quantities and Units

31.1 Physical Quantities

31.1.1 Physical quantities consist of magnitude and unit

31.1.2 Estimate physical quantities from the syllabus

31.2 SI Units

31.2.1 SI base units: mass, length, time, current, temperature

31.2.2 Express derived units from SI base units

31.2.3 Check homogeneity of physical equations

31.2.4 Use prefixes (pico, nano, micro, kilo, etc.)

31.3 Errors and Uncertainties

31.3.1 Understand systematic and random errors

31.3.2 Assess uncertainty in derived quantities

31.4 uniform Electric Fields

31.4.1 Distinguish between precision and accuracy

31.5 Scalars and Vectors

31.5.1 Difference between scalar and vector quantities

31.5.2 Add and subtract coplanar vectors

31.5.3 Represent a vector as components

32. Motion in a Circle

32.1 Centripetal Acceleration

32.1.1 Understand centripetal acceleration and its role in circular motion

32.1.2 Recall and use a = rω² and a = v² / r

32.1.3 Recall and use F = mrω² and F = mv² / r

32.1.4 Understand force causing centripetal acceleration is always perpendicular to motion

32.2 Kinematics of Uniform Circular Motion

32.2.1 Recall and use ω = 2π / T and v = rω

32.2.2 Understand and use angular speed

32.2.3 Define and express angular displacement in radians

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Define and Use the Terms Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Introduction