The concept of the de Broglie wavelength is pivotal in quantum physics, bridging the gap between classical and quantum mechanics by attributing wave-like properties to particles. This principle is fundamental to the study of wave-particle duality, a key topic in the AS & A Level Physics curriculum (9702). Grasping the de Broglie wavelength enhances understanding of phenomena such as electron diffraction and the behavior of particles at the quantum scale, thereby deepening students' comprehension of the underlying principles governing the microscopic world.

Key Concepts

Wave-Particle Duality

Wave-particle duality is the concept that every quantum entity, such as particles and waves, exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties. This duality was initially proposed to explain the behavior of light, which can demonstrate properties of both waves (such as interference and diffraction) and particles (such as photons). The de Broglie hypothesis extends this duality to all matter, suggesting that particles like electrons and protons also possess wave characteristics.

The de Broglie Hypothesis

Introduced by Louis de Broglie in his 1924 doctoral thesis, the de Broglie hypothesis posits that matter particles have an associated wavelength. This groundbreaking idea proposed that particles of matter, such as electrons, could exhibit wave-like behavior, similar to how light behaves both as a wave and a particle. This hypothesis was later confirmed experimentally, fundamentally influencing the development of quantum mechanics.

de Broglie Wavelength Formula

The de Broglie wavelength ($\lambda$) is given by the equation:

$$\lambda = \frac{h}{p}$$

where:

$h$ is Planck's constant ($6.626 \times 10^{-34} \text{Js}$)
$p$ is the momentum of the particle, calculated as $p = m \times v$

This equation illustrates the inverse relationship between a particle's momentum and its wavelength: the greater the momentum, the shorter the wavelength.

Calculating de Broglie Wavelength

To calculate the de Broglie wavelength, one must first determine the particle's momentum. For example, consider an electron with a mass of $9.11 \times 10^{-31} \text{kg}$ moving at a velocity of $2.2 \times 10^6 \text{m/s}$. The momentum ($p$) is calculated as:

$$p = m \times v = 9.11 \times 10^{-31} \text{kg} \times 2.2 \times 10^6 \text{m/s} = 2.004 \times 10^{-24} \text{kg m/s}$$

Substituting this into the de Broglie equation gives:

$$\lambda = \frac{6.626 \times 10^{-34} \text{Js}}{2.004 \times 10^{-24} \text{kg m/s}} \approx 3.31 \times 10^{-10} \text{m}$$>

This wavelength is on the order of atomic distances, which explains why wave-like behavior is observable at the microscopic scale.

Applications of de Broglie Wavelength

The de Broglie wavelength has significant applications in various scientific fields:

Electron Microscopy: Utilizes the wave nature of electrons to achieve higher resolution images than optical microscopes.
Quantum Mechanics: Forms the basis for the wavefunction in Schrödinger's equation, describing the probabilistic nature of particles.
Crystallography: Employs electron diffraction patterns to determine crystal structures and atomic arrangements.
Particle Physics: Essential in understanding the behavior of particles in accelerators and detectors.

Experimental Evidence

One of the most compelling pieces of evidence supporting the de Broglie hypothesis is the Davisson-Germer experiment conducted in the 1920s. In this experiment, electrons were scattered off a nickel crystal, and the resulting diffraction patterns matched those predicted by wave theory. This provided direct evidence that electrons exhibit wave-like properties, validating de Broglie's theory.

Planck's Constant and its Significance

Planck's constant ($h$) is a fundamental quantity in quantum mechanics, relating energy and frequency ($E = h \nu$) and momentum and wavelength ($\lambda = \frac{h}{p}$). Its small value highlights the quantized nature of physical properties at microscopic scales, distinguishing quantum mechanics from classical physics.

Implications for Macroscopic Objects

While the de Broglie wavelength applies to all matter, it becomes negligible for macroscopic objects due to their large mass and momentum. For instance, a soccer ball moving at typical speeds has a de Broglie wavelength on the order of $10^{-34}$ meters, making wave-like properties unobservable. This stark difference explains why classical physics sufficiently describes everyday objects, while quantum mechanics governs the microscopic world.

Relationship with Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

The uncertainty principle states that certain pairs of physical properties, like position and momentum, cannot be simultaneously measured with arbitrary precision. The de Broglie wavelength provides a quantitative measure of this uncertainty. A smaller wavelength implies a larger uncertainty in position, and vice versa, illustrating the intrinsic limitations in measuring quantum systems.

Mathematical Derivation of de Broglie Wavelength

Starting from Einstein's energy-momentum relationship for photons ($E = p \times c$) and considering the wave properties of light ($E = h \nu$ and $c = \lambda \nu$), we can derive the de Broglie relationship:

$$\lambda = \frac{h}{p}$$>

Extending this to matter particles, de Broglie proposed that particles with momentum $p$ also have an associated wavelength $\lambda$, thereby unifying the descriptions of waves and particles.

Quantum Behavior in Particles

Particles exhibit quantum behaviors such as interference and diffraction when their de Broglie wavelength is comparable to the dimensions of the system they interact with. For example, electrons can produce interference patterns when passing through a double-slit apparatus, a phenomenon traditionally associated with waves.

Limitations of the de Broglie Wavelength

The de Broglie wavelength is most accurate for non-relativistic particles. For particles moving at velocities approaching the speed of light, relativistic effects become significant, and the standard de Broglie formula must be modified to account for changes in mass and momentum under relativity.

Calculations in Practice

In practical scenarios, calculating the de Broglie wavelength aids in designing experiments and interpreting the behavior of particles at the quantum level. For instance, determining the wavelength of electrons used in electron microscopes is crucial for achieving the desired resolution and resolving power.

Quantum Tunneling and de Broglie Wavelength

Quantum tunneling is a phenomenon where particles pass through potential barriers that they classically shouldn't be able to. The probability of tunneling is influenced by the de Broglie wavelength, as it determines the wavefunction's penetration depth into the barrier.

Relation to the Schrödinger Equation

The de Broglie wavelength is inherently connected to the Schrödinger equation, the fundamental equation of quantum mechanics that describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes over time. The wavefunction solutions to this equation incorporate the particle's wavelength, facilitating predictions about its behavior.

Phase Velocity and Group Velocity

The concepts of phase velocity and group velocity in wave mechanics are related to the de Broglie wavelength. Phase velocity ($v_p$) is the speed at which a particular phase of the wave propagates, while group velocity ($v_g$) is the speed at which the overall shape of the wave's amplitudes (the envelope) propagates. For matter waves, these velocities provide insights into energy and information transport.

de Broglie's Influence on Modern Physics

De Broglie's hypothesis laid the groundwork for the development of wave mechanics and the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has influenced various modern physics domains, including quantum field theory, solid-state physics, and nanotechnology, by providing a fundamental understanding of the wave nature of matter.

Interference and Diffraction of Matter Waves

Experiments have demonstrated that particles such as electrons, neutrons, and even large molecules like buckyballs exhibit interference and diffraction patterns, confirming their wave-like nature as predicted by the de Broglie wavelength. These phenomena are critical in techniques like neutron scattering and molecular beam epitaxy.

de Broglie Wavelength in Thermal Physics

In thermal physics, the de Broglie wavelength is used to describe the statistical behavior of particles in gases. It plays a role in understanding phenomena like Bose-Einstein condensation and Fermi-Dirac statistics, which govern the properties of bosons and fermions, respectively.

Case Study: Electron Diffraction

Electron diffraction experiments utilize the de Broglie wavelength to analyze the crystal structure of materials. By directing a beam of electrons with a known wavelength at a crystalline sample, the resulting diffraction pattern can reveal information about the atomic arrangement and interatomic distances within the material.

Group Theory and de Broglie Waves

Group theory, a mathematical framework for analyzing symmetries, interacts with de Broglie waves in understanding the selection rules for transitions and the symmetry properties of wavefunctions. This interplay is essential in fields like quantum chemistry and solid-state physics.

Relation to Quantum Entanglement

While not directly related, the de Broglie wavelength concept underpins the wave nature of particles involved in quantum entanglement. The superposition and interference of wavefunctions are crucial in entangled states, influencing the correlations observed between entangled particles.

Superconductivity and de Broglie Waves

In superconductors, Cooper pairs of electrons move without resistance. The coherence of their wavefunctions, informed by the de Broglie wavelength, is essential for the phenomenon of superconductivity, where electron pairs form a collective ground state.

Comparison Table

Aspect	Wave Nature	Particle Nature
Description	Exhibits wavelength and frequency; capable of interference and diffraction.	Has mass and momentum; capable of localized interactions.
Example	Electromagnetic waves, de Broglie waves of particles.	Electrons, protons, photons (as particles).
Equations	Wave-like equations: $\lambda = \frac{h}{p}$, $E = h \nu$.	Momentum: $p = m \times v$, Energy: $E = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$.
Applications	Interference experiments, diffraction grating, electron microscopy.	Particle collisions, classical mechanics, Newtonian physics.
Measurement	Measured using interference and diffraction patterns.	Measured using detectors tracking position and momentum.
Impact in Physics	Foundation for quantum mechanics; explains wave-like phenomena.	Foundation for classical mechanics; explains particle-like behavior.

Summary and Key Takeaways

The de Broglie wavelength bridges wave and particle descriptions of matter.
Wave-particle duality is a cornerstone of quantum mechanics, applicable to all matter.
Calculating the de Broglie wavelength involves understanding a particle's momentum.
Experimental evidence, such as electron diffraction, validates the de Broglie hypothesis.
Advanced concepts include relativistic effects, wavefunction interactions, and interdisciplinary applications.
The de Broglie wavelength is fundamental in technologies like electron microscopy and quantum computing.

Examiner Tip

Tips

To master the de Broglie wavelength, practice converting between momentum and wavelength with various particles. Use the mnemonic "PHM" to remember the relationship: P for Planck's constant, H for h, and M for momentum in the formula $ \lambda = \frac{h}{p} $. Additionally, relate real-world applications like electron microscopy to reinforce the concept's practical significance.

Did You Know

Louis de Broglie originally introduced his wavelength concept during a time when the scientific community was skeptical about matter waves. It wasn't until experiments like the Davisson-Germer experiment that his ideas gained widespread acceptance. Additionally, the de Broglie wavelength plays a crucial role in modern technologies such as scanning tunneling microscopes, which can image surfaces at the atomic level by exploiting the wave nature of electrons.

Common Mistakes

Mistake 1: Confusing mass with momentum when calculating the de Broglie wavelength. Remember, momentum ($p$) is the product of mass ($m$) and velocity ($v$), so always calculate $p = m \times v$ first.
Mistake 2: Forgetting to use consistent units. Ensure that mass is in kilograms and velocity in meters per second to obtain the wavelength in meters.
Mistake 3: Applying the de Broglie equation to macroscopic objects without considering the negligible wavelength, leading to unrealistic interpretations of wave behavior.

FAQ

What is the de Broglie wavelength?

The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength associated with a moving particle, calculated using the formula $ \lambda = \frac{h}{p} $, where $ h $ is Planck's constant and $ p $ is the particle's momentum.

Why is the de Broglie wavelength important in quantum physics?

It demonstrates the wave-particle duality of matter, showing that particles like electrons exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, which is fundamental to quantum mechanics.

How does the de Broglie wavelength relate to particle momentum?

There is an inverse relationship between de Broglie wavelength and momentum. As a particle's momentum increases, its wavelength decreases, and vice versa.

Can macroscopic objects have a measurable de Broglie wavelength?

In theory, all matter has a de Broglie wavelength, but for macroscopic objects, the wavelength is so extremely small that wave-like properties are practically unobservable.

How was the de Broglie hypothesis experimentally confirmed?

Through the Davisson-Germer experiment, which demonstrated electron diffraction patterns consistent with wave-like behavior, providing empirical evidence for the de Broglie hypothesis.

What role does the de Broglie wavelength play in electron microscopy?

Electron microscopy leverages the short de Broglie wavelengths of electrons to achieve much higher resolution images than traditional light microscopes, allowing scientists to observe structures at the atomic level.

1. Capacitance

1.1 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

1.1.1 Determine electric potential energy stored in a capacitor from the area under the potential–charge g

1.1.2 Recall and use W = ½QV = ½CV²

1.2 Discharging a Capacitor

1.2.1 Analyze graphs of potential difference, charge, and current during capacitor discharge

1.2.2 Recall and use τ = RC for the time constant during discharge

1.2.3 Use equations of the form x = x₀e^(-t / RC) for current, charge, or potential during discharge

1.3 Capacitors and Capacitance

1.3.1 Define capacitance for isolated spherical conductors and parallel plate capacitors

1.3.2 Recall and use C = Q / V

1.3.3 Derive formulae for combined capacitance of capacitors in series and parallel

1.3.4 Use capacitance formulae for capacitors in series and parallel

2. Nuclear Physics

2.1 Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy

2.1.1 Sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number

2.1.2 Explain nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

2.1.3 Calculate the energy released in nuclear reactions using E = c²∆m

2.1.4 Understand the equivalence between energy and mass (E = mc²)

2.1.5 Define and use the terms mass defect and binding energy

2.2 Radioactive Decay

2.2.1 Understand that fluctuations in count rate provide evidence for random decay

2.2.2 Understand that radioactive decay is spontaneous and random

2.2.3 Define activity and decay constant, and recall A = λN

2.2.4 Define half-life

2.2.5 Use λ = 0.693 / t₁/₂ for the half-life relationship

2.2.6 Understand exponential decay and use the relationship x = x₀e^(-λt)

3. Kinematics

3.1 Equations of Motion

3.1.1 Define and use distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration

3.1.2 Use graphical methods to represent motion

3.1.3 Determine displacement from velocity–time graph

3.1.4 Determine velocity using gradient of displacement–time graph

3.1.5 Determine acceleration using gradient of velocity–time graph

3.1.6 Derive equations for uniformly accelerated motion

3.1.7 Solve problems of uniformly accelerated motion

3.1.8 Describe experiment to determine acceleration due to gravity

3.1.9 Explain motion with uniform velocity and perpendicular acceleration

4. Deformation of Solids

4.1 Stress and Strain

4.1.1 Understand and use the terms load, extension, compression, and limit of proportionality

4.1.2 Recall and use Hooke’s law

4.1.3 Recall and use the formula for spring constant k = F / x

4.1.4 Define and use terms stress, strain, and Young's modulus

4.1.5 Describe an experiment to determine Young’s modulus

4.1.6 Understand deformation caused by tensile or compressive forces

4.2 Elastic and Plastic Behaviour

4.2.1 Understand elastic and plastic deformation and elastic limit

4.2.2 Understand area under the force–extension graph as work done

4.2.3 Calculate elastic potential energy using EP = ½kx²

5. Gravitational Fields

5.1 Gravitational Field of a Point Mass

5.1.1 Understand that g is approximately constant for small height changes near Earth's surface

5.1.2 Recall and use g = GM / r²

5.1.3 Derive and use g = GM / r² for gravitational field strength

5.2 Gravitational Potential

5.2.1 Define gravitational potential as work done per unit mass in bringing a test mass from infinity

5.2.2 Use ϕ = -GM / r for gravitational potential due to a point mass

5.2.3 Use EP = -GMm / r for gravitational potential energy between two point masses

5.3 Gravitational Field

5.3.1 Define gravitational field as force per unit mass

5.3.2 Represent a gravitational field using field lines

5.4 Gravitational Force Between Point Masses

5.4.1 For point outside uniform sphere, treat mass as a point mass at its center

5.4.2 Analyze circular orbits in gravitational fields

5.4.3 Recall and use Newton's law of gravitation F = Gm₁m₂ / r²

6. Electricity

6.1 Resistance and Resistivity

6.1.1 Understand that the resistance of a thermistor decreases as temperature increases

6.1.2 Define resistance and recall and use V = IR

6.1.3 Sketch I–V characteristics for metallic conductor, semiconductor diode, and filament lamp

6.1.4 Explain that the resistance of a filament lamp increases as current increases

6.1.5 State Ohm’s law and recall and use R = ρL / A

6.1.6 Understand that the resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases

6.2 Electric Current

6.2.1 Understand that an electric current is a flow of charge carriers

6.2.2 Understand that the charge on charge carriers is quantised

6.2.3 Recall and use Q = It

6.2.4 Use I = Anvq for current-carrying conductors

6.3 Potential Difference and Power

6.3.1 Define potential difference as energy transferred per unit charge

6.3.2 Recall and use V = W / Q

6.3.3 Recall and use P = VI, P = I²R, P = V² / R

7. D.C. Circuits

7.1 Practical Circuits

7.1.1 Recall and use the circuit symbols in the syllabus

7.1.2 Draw and interpret circuit diagrams using circuit symbols

7.1.3 Define electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source as energy transferred per unit charge

7.1.4 Distinguish between e.m.f. and potential difference (p.d.)

7.1.5 Understand the effects of internal resistance on terminal potential difference

7.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws

7.2.1 Recall Kirchhoff’s first law: conservation of charge

7.2.2 Recall Kirchhoff’s second law: conservation of energy

7.2.3 Derive the formula for combined resistance of resistors in series using Kirchhoff’s laws

7.2.4 Use the formula for combined resistance of resistors in series

7.2.5 Derive the formula for combined resistance of resistors in parallel using Kirchhoff’s laws

7.2.6 Use the formula for combined resistance of resistors in parallel

7.2.7 Use Kirchhoff’s laws to solve simple circuit problems

7.3 Potential Dividers

7.3.1 Understand the principle of a potential divider circuit

7.3.2 Recall and use the principle of the potentiometer for comparing potential differences

7.3.3 Understand the use of a galvanometer in null methods

7.3.4 Explain the use of thermistors and LDRs in potential dividers to provide a potential dependent on te

8. Thermal Equilibrium

8.1 Thermal Energy Transfer

8.1.1 Understand that thermal energy transfers from higher to lower temperature

8.1.2 Understand that regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium

9. Temperature Scales

9.1 Temperature Measurement

9.1.1 Understand physical properties that vary with temperature (e.g., density, gas volume, resistance)

9.1.2 Convert temperatures between Kelvin and Celsius, and recall T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.15

10. Magnetic Fields

10.1 Concept of a Magnetic Field

10.1.1 Understand that a magnetic field is a field of force produced by moving charges or permanent magnets

10.1.2 Represent a magnetic field using field lines

10.2 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

10.2.1 Understand that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

10.2.2 Recall and use F = BIL sin θ for the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

10.2.3 Define magnetic flux density as the force per unit current per unit length on a wire at right angles

10.3 Force on a Moving Charge

10.3.1 Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field

10.3.2 Recall and use F = BQv sin θ for the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

10.3.3 Understand the origin of the Hall voltage and use the expression VH = BI / (ntq) for the Hall voltag

10.3.4 Understand the use of a Hall probe to measure magnetic flux density

10.4 Magnetic Fields Due to Currents

10.4.1 Sketch magnetic field patterns due to currents in a straight wire, flat coil, and solenoid

10.4.2 Understand that magnetic field in a solenoid is increased by a ferrous core

10.4.3 Explain the origin of forces between current-carrying conductors and determine the direction of the

10.5 Electromagnetic Induction

10.5.1 Define magnetic flux as the product of magnetic flux density and area perpendicular to flux directio

10.5.2 Recall and use Φ = BA for magnetic flux

10.5.3 Understand and use the concept of magnetic flux linkage

10.5.4 Explain experiments that show changing magnetic flux induces an e.m.f.

10.5.5 Recall and use Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws of electromagnetic induction

11. Specific Heat Capacity and Latent Heat

11.1 Specific Heat Capacity

11.1.1 Define and use specific heat capacity

11.2 Latent Heat

11.2.1 Define and use specific latent heat; distinguish between fusion and vaporisation

12. Dynamics

12.1 Momentum and Newton’s Laws of Motion

12.1.1 Mass resists change in motion

12.1.2 Recall F = ma and solve related problems

12.1.3 Define and use linear momentum

12.1.4 Force as rate of change of momentum

12.1.5 State and apply Newton’s laws

12.1.6 Describe weight as effect of gravitational field

12.1.7 Weight of an object is mass × gravitational acceleration

12.2 Non-uniform Motion

12.2.1 Understand frictional and drag forces

12.2.2 Describe motion in uniform gravitational field with air resistance

12.2.3 Objects moving against resistive force may reach terminal velocity

12.3 Linear Momentum and its Conservation

12.3.1 State conservation of momentum

12.3.2 Apply conservation of momentum to solve problems

12.3.3 For elastic collision, kinetic energy and relative speed are conserved

12.3.4 Momentum is conserved, but some kinetic energy may change

13. Medical Physics

13.1 Production and Use of Ultrasound

13.1.1 Understand that a piezo-electric crystal changes shape when a p.d. is applied and generates an e.m.f

13.1.2 Understand how ultrasound waves are generated and detected by a piezoelectric transducer

13.1.3 Understand how ultrasound reflection at boundaries provides diagnostic information about internal st

13.1.4 Define specific acoustic impedance as Z = ρc

13.1.5 Use the equation IR / I₀ = (Z₁ – Z₂)² / (Z₁ + Z₂)² for the intensity reflection coefficient

13.2 Production and Use of X-rays

13.2.1 Explain that X-rays are produced by electron bombardment of a metal target and calculate the minimum

13.2.2 Understand the use of X-rays in imaging internal body structures and the term 'contrast' in X-ray im

13.2.3 Recall and use I = I₀e^(-μx) for the attenuation of X-rays in matter

13.2.4 Understand how computed tomography (CT) produces 3D images by combining multiple 2D X-ray images

13.3 PET Scanning

13.3.1 Understand that a tracer contains radioactive nuclei and is introduced into the body for imaging

13.3.2 Understand that β+ decay is used in positron emission tomography (PET)

13.3.3 Understand that annihilation occurs when a particle interacts with its antiparticle, conserving mass

13.3.4 Explain how gamma-ray photons from annihilation are detected to create an image of tracer concentrat

14. Waves

14.1 Progressive Waves

14.1.1 Describe wave motion in ropes, springs, and ripple tanks

14.1.2 Understand and use the terms displacement, amplitude, phase difference, period, frequency, wavelengt

14.1.3 Use time-base and y-gain on a cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) to determine frequency and amplitude

14.1.4 Derive and use v = f λ for the wave equation

14.1.5 Recall and use v = f λ

14.1.6 Understand energy transfer by a progressive wave

14.1.7 Recall and use intensity = power / area, intensity ∝ (amplitude)²

14.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

14.2.1 Compare transverse and longitudinal waves

14.2.2 Analyze and interpret graphical representations of transverse and longitudinal waves

14.3 Doppler Effect for Sound Waves

14.3.1 Understand the change in frequency when a sound source moves relative to a stationary observer

14.3.2 Use the expression f₀ = fₛ(v / (v ± vₛ)) for the observed frequency

14.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum

14.4.1 State all electromagnetic waves are transverse waves traveling at the same speed in free space

14.4.2 Recall the range of wavelengths from radio waves to γ-rays

14.4.3 Recall that wavelengths 400–700 nm are visible to the human eye

14.5 Polarisation

14.5.1 Understand that polarisation is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves

14.5.2 Recall and use Malus's law (I = I₀ cos²θ) to calculate intensity of a plane-polarised wave after pas

15. The Mole

15.1 The Mole

15.1.1 Understand that amount of substance is an SI base quantity with the unit mol

15.1.2 Use molar quantities where one mole contains Avogadro's constant of particles

16. Equation of State

16.1 Ideal Gas Law

16.1.1 Understand that a gas obeying pV ∝ T is an ideal gas

16.1.2 Recall and use the equation pV = nRT for an ideal gas

16.1.3 Recall pV = NkT, where N = number of molecules and k is Boltzmann constant

16.1.4 Use the relationship k = R / NA

17. Kinetic Theory of Gases

17.1 Kinetic Theory

17.1.1 State the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases

17.1.2 Explain pressure exerted by a gas due to molecular movement

17.1.3 Derive and use pV = (3/2)NmkT for pressure of a gas

17.1.4 Compare pV = (3/2)NmkT with pV = NkT to deduce average kinetic energy of a molecule

18. Particle Physics

18.1 Atoms, Nuclei and Radiation

18.1.1 Infer the existence and small size of the nucleus from α-particle scattering

18.1.2 Describe the nuclear atom model: protons, neutrons, and electrons

18.1.3 Distinguish between nucleon number and proton number

18.1.4 Understand isotopes as forms of the same element with different neutrons

18.1.5 Use the notation AZX for nuclides representation

18.1.6 Understand conservation of nucleon number and charge in nuclear processes

18.1.7 Describe the composition, mass, and charge of α-, β-, and γ-radiations

18.1.8 Understand antiparticles and positrons as antiparticles of electrons

18.1.9 State that (electron) antineutrinos are produced during β- decay and neutrinos during β+ decay

18.1.10 Represent α- and β-decay using radioactive decay equations

18.1.11 Use unified atomic mass unit (u) for mass

18.2 Fundamental Particles

18.2.1 Understand quarks as fundamental particles with six flavours

18.2.2 Understand hadrons as baryons (three quarks) or mesons (one quark and one antiquark)

18.2.3 Describe changes in quark composition during β- and β+ decay

18.2.4 Describe protons and neutrons as composed of quarks

18.2.5 Recall and use the charge of each quark and its respective antiquark

18.2.6 Recall electrons and neutrinos as fundamental particles (leptons)

19. Internal Energy

19.1 Internal Energy

19.1.1 Understand that internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of molecules in a syste

19.1.2 Relate rise in temperature to an increase in internal energy

20. Forces, Density and Pressure

20.1 Turning Effects of Forces

20.1.1 Weight acts at a single point: centre of gravity

20.1.2 Define and apply the moment of a force

20.1.3 Understand the concept of a couple

20.1.4 Define and apply torque of a couple

20.2 Equilibrium of Forces

20.2.1 State and apply the principle of moments

20.2.2 System in equilibrium has no resultant force or torque

20.2.3 Use a vector triangle to represent coplanar forces in equilibrium

20.3 Density and Pressure

20.3.1 Define and use density

20.3.2 Define and use pressure

20.3.3 Derive equation for hydrostatic pressure ∆p = ρg∆h

20.3.4 Use the equation ∆p = ρg∆h

20.3.5 Understand upthrust as the effect of hydrostatic pressure

20.3.6 Calculate upthrust using F = ρgV (Archimedes' principle)

21. Astronomy and Cosmology

21.1 Standard Candles

21.1.1 Understand luminosity as the total power radiated by a star

21.1.2 Recall and use the inverse square law F = L / (4πd²) for radiant flux intensity

21.1.3 Understand that an object with known luminosity is a standard candle

21.1.4 Use standard candles to determine distances to galaxies

21.2 Stellar Radii

21.2.1 Recall and use Wien’s displacement law λmax ∝ 1 / T to estimate the surface temperature of a star

21.2.2 Use Stefan–Boltzmann law L = 4πσr²T⁴

21.2.3 Use Wien’s law and Stefan–Boltzmann law to estimate the radius of a star

21.3 Hubble’s Law and Big Bang Theory

21.3.1 Understand redshift and the increase in wavelength of light from distant objects

21.3.2 Use ∆λ / λ = ∆f / f = v / c for redshift

21.3.3 Explain why redshift suggests the Universe is expanding

21.3.4 Recall and use Hubble’s law v = H₀d to explain the Big Bang theory

22. First Law of Thermodynamics

22.1 First Law

22.1.1 Recall and use W = p∆V for work done when the volume of a gas changes at constant pressure

22.1.2 Understand the difference between work done by a gas and work done on a gas

22.1.3 Recall and use the first law of thermodynamics: ∆U = q + W

23. Alternating Currents

23.1 Characteristics of Alternating Currents

23.1.1 Understand and use terms period, frequency, and peak value for alternating current or voltage

23.1.2 Use x = x₀ sin(ωt) for sinusoidal alternating current or voltage

23.1.3 Recall that the mean power in a resistive load is half the maximum power for sinusoidal current

23.1.4 Distinguish between root-mean-square (r.m.s.) and peak values and recall I₀r.m.s = I₀ / √2 and V₀r.m

23.2 Rectification and Smoothing

23.2.1 Distinguish graphically between half-wave and full-wave rectification

23.2.2 Explain the use of a single diode for half-wave rectification

23.2.3 Explain the use of four diodes (bridge rectifier) for full-wave rectification

23.2.4 Analyze the effect of a capacitor in smoothing, including the effect of capacitance and load resista

24. Superposition

24.1 Stationary Waves

24.1.1 Explain and use the principle of superposition

24.1.2 Understand experiments demonstrating stationary waves using microwaves, stretched strings, and air c

24.1.3 Explain the formation of stationary waves using graphical methods and identify nodes and antinodes

24.1.4 Determine wavelength from the positions of nodes or antinodes

24.2 Diffraction

24.2.1 Explain diffraction and show understanding of related experiments

24.2.2 Understand the effect of gap width relative to wavelength in diffraction experiments

24.3 Interference

24.3.1 Understand the terms interference and coherence

24.3.2 Demonstrate two-source interference using water waves, sound, light, and microwaves

24.3.3 Understand the conditions required for two-source interference fringes

24.3.4 Recall and use λ = ax / D for double-slit interference with light

24.4 Diffraction Grating

24.4.1 Recall and use d sin θ = nλ for diffraction grating calculations

24.4.2 Describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light

25. Simple Harmonic Oscillations

25.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

25.1.1 Understand and use terms displacement, amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency, and phase di

25.1.2 Understand that simple harmonic motion occurs when acceleration is proportional to displacement from

25.1.3 Use a = -ω²x and recall x = x₀ sin(ωt) as the solution

25.1.4 Use v = v₀ cos(ωt) and v = ±ω√(x₀² - x²) for velocity

26. Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

26.1 Energy in SHM

26.1.1 Describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy during SHM

26.1.2 Recall and use E = ½mω²x₀² for the total energy of a system undergoing SHM

27. Quantum Physics

27.1 Energy and Momentum of a Photon

27.1.1 Understand that electromagnetic radiation has a particulate nature

27.1.2 Recall and use E = hf for the energy of a photon

27.1.3 Use the electronvolt (eV) as a unit of energy

27.1.4 Understand that a photon has momentum and use p = E / c for photon momentum

27.2 Photoelectric Effect

27.2.1 Understand that photoelectrons are emitted from a metal surface when illuminated by electromagnetic

27.2.2 Understand and use the terms threshold frequency and threshold wavelength

27.2.3 Explain photoelectric emission in terms of photon energy and work function

27.2.4 Recall and use hf = Φ + ½mv² for the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons

27.2.5 Explain why the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of intensity, while current

27.3 Wave-Particle Duality

27.3.1 Understand that the photoelectric effect shows the particulate nature of light, while diffraction sh

27.3.2 Describe and interpret electron diffraction as evidence for the wave nature of particles

27.3.3 Understand the de Broglie wavelength as the wavelength associated with a moving particle

27.3.4 Recall and use λ = h / p for de Broglie wavelength

27.4 Energy Levels in Atoms and Line Spectra

27.4.1 Understand discrete electron energy levels in atoms (e.g., atomic hydrogen)

27.4.2 Understand the appearance and formation of emission and absorption line spectra

27.4.3 Recall and use hf = E₁ – E₂ for the energy difference between electron energy levels

28. Damped and Forced Oscillations, Resonance

28.1 Damped Oscillations

28.1.1 Understand that damping occurs due to resistive forces

28.1.2 Understand the types of damping: light, critical, and heavy damping

28.2 Resonance

28.2.1 Understand that resonance occurs when an oscillating system is forced to oscillate at its natural fr

29. Work, Energy and Power

29.1 Energy Conservation

29.1.1 Understand the concept of work, and recall W = F × s

29.1.2 Apply the principle of conservation of energy

29.1.3 Understand efficiency as useful energy output / total energy input

29.1.4 Use efficiency concept to solve problems

29.1.5 Define power as work done per unit time

29.1.6 Solve problems using P = W / t

29.1.7 Derive P = Fv and solve problems

29.2 Gravitational Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy

29.2.1 Derive ∆EP = mg∆h for gravitational potential energy changes

29.2.2 Recall and use ∆EP = mg∆h for gravitational potential energy changes

29.2.3 Derive EK = ½mv² for kinetic energy

29.2.4 Recall and use EK = ½mv² for kinetic energy

30. Electric Fields

30.1 Electric Fields and Field Lines

30.1.1 Understand that an electric field is a field of force and define it as force per unit positive charg

30.1.2 Represent an electric field using field lines

30.2 Uniform Electric Fields

30.2.1 Recall and use E = ∆V / ∆d to calculate electric field strength between charged parallel plates

30.2.2 Describe the effect of a uniform electric field on the motion of charged particles

30.3 Electric Force Between Point Charges

30.3.1 Understand that, for a point outside a spherical conductor, the charge may be considered a point mas

30.3.2 Recall and use Coulomb’s law F = Q₁Q₂ / (4πε₀r²) for the force between two point charges

30.4 Electric Field of a Point Charge

30.4.1 Recall and use E = Q / (4πε₀r²) for the electric field strength due to a point charge

30.5 Electric Potential

30.5.1 Define electric potential as work done per unit positive charge in bringing a test charge from infin

30.5.2 Recall and use V = Q / (4πε₀r) for electric potential due to a point charge

30.5.3 Understand how electric potential leads to electric potential energy of two point charges and use EP

31. Physical Quantities and Units

31.1 Physical Quantities

31.1.1 Physical quantities consist of magnitude and unit

31.1.2 Estimate physical quantities from the syllabus

31.2 SI Units

31.2.1 SI base units: mass, length, time, current, temperature

31.2.2 Express derived units from SI base units

31.2.3 Check homogeneity of physical equations

31.2.4 Use prefixes (pico, nano, micro, kilo, etc.)

31.3 Errors and Uncertainties

31.3.1 Understand systematic and random errors

31.3.2 Assess uncertainty in derived quantities

31.4 uniform Electric Fields

31.4.1 Distinguish between precision and accuracy

31.5 Scalars and Vectors

31.5.1 Difference between scalar and vector quantities

31.5.2 Add and subtract coplanar vectors

31.5.3 Represent a vector as components

32. Motion in a Circle

32.1 Centripetal Acceleration

32.1.1 Understand centripetal acceleration and its role in circular motion

32.1.2 Recall and use a = rω² and a = v² / r

32.1.3 Recall and use F = mrω² and F = mv² / r

32.1.4 Understand force causing centripetal acceleration is always perpendicular to motion

32.2 Kinematics of Uniform Circular Motion

32.2.1 Recall and use ω = 2π / T and v = rω

32.2.2 Understand and use angular speed

32.2.3 Define and express angular displacement in radians

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Understanding the de Broglie Wavelength as the Wavelength Associated with a Moving Particle

Introduction